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v | |
| Dedication |
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ix | |
| Preface |
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xi | |
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1 | (18) |
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Chemistry and Physical Structure |
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1 | (5) |
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1 | (1) |
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Chlorine Content and Combustion Resistance |
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2 | (1) |
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Polymerization Morphology |
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3 | (1) |
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Vinyl's Unique Melt Processing |
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3 | (1) |
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Properties Depend on Formulation and Processing History |
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3 | (1) |
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Vinyl as a Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) |
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4 | (2) |
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PVC's Solubility Parameter and Ease of Compounding |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (5) |
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PVC Meeting Society's Needs |
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6 | (1) |
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The PVC Industry as a Responsible Citizen |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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Siding, Windows, and Packaging |
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10 | (1) |
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Society of Plastics Engineers, Vinyl Division |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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Vinyl Chloride Exposure and Responsible Care |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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11 | (8) |
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Growth of the Vinyl Industry |
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11 | (2) |
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PVC as a Major Thermoplastic |
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13 | (1) |
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PVC as a Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE) |
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14 | (1) |
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PVC as an Engineering Thermoplastic |
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15 | (4) |
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19 | (38) |
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19 | (1) |
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19 | (2) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (5) |
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21 | (1) |
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Substitution at the Carbon-Chlorine Bond |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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26 | (7) |
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Direct Chlorination of Ethylene |
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29 | (1) |
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Oxychlorination of Ethylene |
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30 | (3) |
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Purification of Ethylene Dichloride for Pyrolysis |
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33 | (1) |
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Ethylene Dichloride Pyrolysis to Vinyl Chloride |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (5) |
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Environmental Considerations |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (3) |
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45 | (1) |
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Health and Safety Factors |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (10) |
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57 | (38) |
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57 | (3) |
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Suspension Process Overview |
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60 | (6) |
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60 | (4) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
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66 | (3) |
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69 | (10) |
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69 | (1) |
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Resin Particle Structure and Formation |
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70 | (2) |
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Agitation and Dispersants |
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72 | (2) |
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74 | (1) |
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Increasing Reactor Productivity |
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74 | (3) |
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Chain Defects and Heat Stability |
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77 | (1) |
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Molecular Weight Extension |
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78 | (1) |
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79 | (1) |
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79 | (1) |
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Microsuspension and Emulsion Polymerization |
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80 | (3) |
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Microsuspension Polymerization of Vinyl Chloride Compared to Emulsion and Suspension Polymerization |
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81 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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Emulsion Polymerization of Vinyl Chloride Compared to Microsuspension and Suspension PVC Polymerization |
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82 | (1) |
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Procedure for Batch Polymerization |
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83 | (1) |
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Other Considerations for Microsuspension and Emulsion Polymerization of PVC |
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83 | (2) |
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83 | (1) |
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84 | (1) |
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84 | (1) |
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84 | (1) |
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Primary Particle Size Microsuspension |
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85 | (2) |
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Primary Particle Size Emulsion |
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85 | (2) |
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87 | (1) |
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Polymerization Equipment Operation |
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87 | (3) |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (1) |
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89 | (1) |
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90 | (2) |
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Residual Vinyl Chloride Removal (Stripping) |
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90 | (1) |
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91 | (1) |
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92 | (1) |
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92 | (1) |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (2) |
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PVC Stabilizers and Lubricants |
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95 | (78) |
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95 | (1) |
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World PVC Stabilizer and Lubricant Markets |
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96 | (1) |
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Structure and Degradation of PVC |
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97 | (4) |
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The General Stabilization of PVC |
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101 | (1) |
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The General Lubrication of PVC |
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101 | (1) |
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102 | (6) |
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Lead Stabilizer Chronology |
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103 | (1) |
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Lead Stabilizer Manufacturing |
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104 | (1) |
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Lead Stabilization Mechanisms |
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105 | (1) |
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Lead Stabilizers of Commercial Importance |
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105 | (1) |
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Lead Stabilizer Strengths and Weaknesses |
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106 | (1) |
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Lead Stabilizer/Lubricant Use Levels |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (8) |
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Organotin Stabilizer Chronology |
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108 | (2) |
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Organotin Stabilizer Manufacturing |
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110 | (2) |
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Organotin Stabilizer Mechanism |
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112 | (1) |
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Organotin Stabilizers of Commercial Importance |
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112 | (1) |
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Organotin Stabilizer Synergists |
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113 | (2) |
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Lubrication of Organotin Stabilizers |
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115 | (1) |
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Organotin Stabilizer Strengths and Weaknesses |
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115 | (1) |
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Organotin Stabilizer/Lubricant Use Levels |
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115 | (1) |
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116 | (13) |
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116 | (2) |
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Mixed Metal Manufacturing |
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118 | (2) |
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Mixed Metal Stabilizer Mechanisms |
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120 | (1) |
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Mixed Metal Stabilizer Synergists |
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120 | (3) |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (2) |
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126 | (1) |
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Inorganic Acid Scavengers |
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126 | (1) |
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Mixed Metal Strengths and Weaknesses |
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126 | (1) |
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Mixed Metal Stabilizer/Lubricant Use Levels |
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127 | (2) |
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129 | (11) |
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Internal and External Lubricants |
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129 | (1) |
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Three Category Lubricant Classification |
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130 | (2) |
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Lubricant-Lubricant Interactions |
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132 | (2) |
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Stabilizer Lubricant Interactions |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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Stabilizer Lubricant One-Packs |
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135 | (2) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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Synthetic Hydrocarbon Waxes |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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139 | (1) |
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Testing of Stabilizers and Lubricants |
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140 | (5) |
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141 | (1) |
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142 | (1) |
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142 | (1) |
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142 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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144 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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Stabilizer-Stabilizer-Incompatibilities |
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145 | (1) |
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Suppliers of PVC Stabilizers and Lubricants |
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145 | (1) |
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PVC Stabilizer Environmental Concerns |
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146 | (9) |
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General Environmental Concerns |
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147 | (1) |
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Lead Environmental Concerns |
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148 | (1) |
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Cadmium Environmental Concerns |
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149 | (1) |
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Barium Environmental Concerns |
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149 | (1) |
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Organotin Environmental Concerns |
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150 | (1) |
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Stabilizers Based Upon Food Additives |
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151 | (4) |
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Chemistry of Degradation and Stabilization |
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155 | (1) |
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Mechanism of Thermal Dehydrochlorination |
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156 | (5) |
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Thermally Labile Structural Defects |
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156 | (1) |
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Hypothetical Labile Structures |
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157 | (1) |
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158 | (1) |
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Ion-Pair/Quasiionic Mechanism |
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158 | (1) |
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Other Proposed Mechanisms |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (5) |
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161 | (1) |
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Stabilizers Containing Metals |
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162 | (1) |
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163 | (1) |
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163 | (1) |
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Principal Stabilizers (Ester Thiols) |
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164 | (2) |
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166 | (7) |
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173 | (28) |
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173 | (1) |
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173 | (1) |
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Mechanisms of Plasticization |
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174 | (2) |
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176 | (6) |
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182 | (4) |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (3) |
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Permanence (Transience) of Plasticizers |
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190 | (1) |
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Solvency, Miscibility, or Compatibility |
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191 | (1) |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (2) |
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Health Aspects of Plasticizers |
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195 | (2) |
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197 | (4) |
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Processing Aids and Impact Modifiers |
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201 | (34) |
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201 | (11) |
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201 | (1) |
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201 | (2) |
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Role of Processing Aids in PVC |
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203 | (1) |
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Promotion of Homogeneous Melt |
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203 | (2) |
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205 | (2) |
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Melt Strength, Extensibility, and Elasticity |
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207 | (1) |
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Benefits of Processing Aids in PVC |
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207 | (1) |
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207 | (1) |
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208 | (1) |
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Calendering/Thermoforming |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (2) |
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211 | (1) |
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Commercial Sources of Processing Aids |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (23) |
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212 | (1) |
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213 | (1) |
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Impact and Toughness Testing |
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214 | (1) |
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214 | (4) |
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Role of Fusion (Gelation) |
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218 | (2) |
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Impact Modification Theory |
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220 | (4) |
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Impact Modifiers -- Function, Features, and Types |
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224 | (2) |
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Predefined Particle Size Modifiers |
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226 | (1) |
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227 | (1) |
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Modifiers with Non-Predefined Particle Size |
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228 | (1) |
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Other Types of Modification |
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229 | (1) |
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Impact Modifier Selection |
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229 | (2) |
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231 | (4) |
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Fillers and Reinforcing Agents |
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235 | (42) |
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Mineral Fillers in PVC Matrix |
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235 | (5) |
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235 | (1) |
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235 | (1) |
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236 | (1) |
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Particle Size Distribution |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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239 | (1) |
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Particle Packing Fraction |
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240 | (1) |
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Commercial Mineral Fillers and Reinforcing Agents |
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240 | (4) |
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Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) |
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240 | (1) |
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Kaolin (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) |
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241 | (1) |
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241 | (1) |
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Mica (K2M(Al2Si6O20)(OH)4) |
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242 | (1) |
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242 | (1) |
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243 | (1) |
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Calcium Sulfate (CaSO2 2 H2O) |
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243 | (1) |
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Nepheline Syenite/Feldspar |
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244 | (1) |
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244 | (1) |
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Applications and Development in PVC Compounds |
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244 | (4) |
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Surface Treatment and Coupling Agent Technology |
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246 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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Zirconates, Titanates, and Zirco-Aluminates |
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247 | (1) |
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247 | (1) |
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Natural Fillers in PVC Matrix |
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248 | (29) |
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248 | (2) |
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Characteristics of Natural Fibers |
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250 | (1) |
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250 | (1) |
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Chemical Composition of Wood |
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251 | (2) |
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PVC/Natural-Fiber Composites |
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253 | (1) |
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Influence of Processing Conditions |
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253 | (1) |
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Effects of Additives Used in the Formulations |
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254 | (10) |
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Foaming of PVC/Natural-Fiber Composites |
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264 | (5) |
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Durability of PVC/Natural-Fiber Composites |
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269 | (8) |
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277 | (12) |
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277 | (2) |
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High Heat Distortion Temperature PVC Blends |
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279 | (2) |
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279 | (1) |
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279 | (1) |
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280 | (1) |
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Styrene/Maleic Anhydride (SMA) Copolymer Blends |
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281 | (1) |
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281 | (4) |
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Butadiene Acrylonitrile Copolymer Blends |
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281 | (4) |
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285 | (1) |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (3) |
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289 | (26) |
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289 | (1) |
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Connection Between Polymerization and Compounding |
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289 | (4) |
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293 | (5) |
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Role of High Speed Mixing |
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293 | (1) |
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Agglomeration Problems with High Speed Mixing |
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293 | (2) |
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Solutions to the Agglomeration Problems in High Speed Mixing |
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295 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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Vinyl Chloride Monomer Removal |
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296 | (1) |
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296 | (2) |
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Distribution and Dispersion of Ingredients |
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298 | (8) |
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298 | (1) |
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Interfacial Tension on Dispersion |
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298 | (1) |
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Compatibility of Materials for Dispersion |
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298 | (2) |
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Elongational Work for Dispersion |
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300 | (2) |
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302 | (3) |
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305 | (1) |
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Powder to Product by Twin Screw Extrusion |
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306 | (1) |
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Powder to Compound with an Internal Batch Mixer (Banbury) and Mill |
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307 | (2) |
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Powder to Compound in an Internal Continuous Mixer and Mill |
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309 | (1) |
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Powder to Compound by Single Screw Compounding |
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310 | (1) |
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Powder to Compound by Reciprocating Single Screw Compounding |
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311 | (1) |
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Powder to Compound by Twin Screw Compounding |
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312 | (2) |
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314 | (1) |
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315 | (50) |
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315 | (1) |
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Types of PVC Resins Used in Flexible Applications |
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316 | (2) |
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Particulate Architecture of PVC Resins Used in Flexible Products |
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318 | (3) |
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Favored Processing Methods for Flexible PVC |
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321 | (2) |
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Designing Flexible PVC Compounds |
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323 | (6) |
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323 | (1) |
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General Problems in Formulation Development |
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324 | (3) |
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Properties Often Specified for Semi-Rigid and Flexible PVC Products |
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327 | (2) |
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Additives Used in Flexible PVC Compounds |
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329 | (12) |
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Liquid Plasticizers and Solid Flexibilizers |
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329 | (2) |
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331 | (2) |
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333 | (1) |
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334 | (3) |
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337 | (1) |
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337 | (2) |
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Flame Retardants and Smoke Suppressants |
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339 | (2) |
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341 | (1) |
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Markets for Flexible and Semi-Rigid PVC |
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341 | (15) |
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Specifications for and Quality Control Testing on Flexible PVC Products |
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356 | (4) |
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Tensile Properties after Oven Aging |
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356 | (1) |
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Thermal Stability by Torque Rheometer |
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357 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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Low Temperature Brittleness |
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358 | (1) |
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Plasticizer Compatibility |
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359 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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Poor Dispersion, Contamination, and Resin Gels |
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360 | (1) |
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Small-Scale Defects and Surface Phenomena |
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360 | (1) |
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360 | (1) |
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360 | (5) |
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Specialty Grade PVC Resins |
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365 | (30) |
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Dispersion and Blending Resins |
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365 | (7) |
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372 | (1) |
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PVC for Powder Coating and Powder Molding Systems |
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372 | (1) |
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Specialty Suspension PVC Resins |
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373 | (6) |
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Ultra High Molecular Weight Resins |
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374 | (1) |
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Ultra High Absorptive Resin |
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375 | (2) |
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Deglossing or Dulling Resins |
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377 | (1) |
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Specialty Grade Emulsion Resins |
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378 | (1) |
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379 | (3) |
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Conventional VCl/VAc Copolymers |
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380 | (1) |
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380 | (1) |
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381 | (1) |
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Overview of Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Materials, Products, and Applications |
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382 | (13) |
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382 | (1) |
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383 | (3) |
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Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Compounds |
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386 | (1) |
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End Use Applications for Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride Compounds |
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386 | (1) |
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Potable Water Distribution at Elevated Temperatures |
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386 | (4) |
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Industrial Handling of Corrosive Fluids at Elevated Temperatures |
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390 | (1) |
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CPVC-Based Fire Sprinkler Systems |
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391 | (2) |
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CPVC Based Non-Pipe Products that Offer Alternatives to Other High Temperature Thermoplastics |
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393 | (1) |
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393 | (2) |
|
Physical Properties and Characterization of PVC |
|
|
395 | (24) |
|
|
|
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
Characterization at the Molecular Level |
|
|
395 | (5) |
|
Characterization at the Particulate Level |
|
|
400 | (3) |
|
Characterization of Vinyl Compounds |
|
|
403 | (10) |
|
Typical Characterization Requirements in the Laboratory |
|
|
413 | (2) |
|
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
|
|
415 | (4) |
|
Flammability and Fire Performance |
|
|
419 | (64) |
|
|
|
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Thermal Degradation and Thermal Decomposition |
|
|
419 | (4) |
|
Thermal Decomposition and Fire Properties |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
Fire Performance: General |
|
|
424 | (1) |
|
Individual Fire Properties and Associated Test Methods |
|
|
425 | (40) |
|
|
|
425 | (14) |
|
|
|
439 | (2) |
|
|
|
441 | (2) |
|
|
|
443 | (6) |
|
|
|
449 | (9) |
|
|
|
458 | (7) |
|
Fire Retardance and Smoke Suppression |
|
|
465 | (18) |
|
|
|
468 | (2) |
|
Fire Modeling and Fire Hazard Assessment |
|
|
470 | (7) |
|
Appendix 1 -- Fire Safety Definitions |
|
|
477 | (4) |
|
Appendix 2 -- Meaning of Major Cone Calorimeter Fire Properties |
|
|
481 | (2) |
|
Weathering of PVC Compounds |
|
|
483 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
|
|
483 | (4) |
|
Weatherability Comparison Between PVC and Other Polymers |
|
|
487 | (2) |
|
Weathering Testing Methods |
|
|
489 | (2) |
|
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
Accelerated Laboratory Exposure |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
Outdoor Exposure Standards |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
Factors Affecting Outdoor Performance of PVC |
|
|
491 | (14) |
|
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
|
|
491 | (2) |
|
|
|
493 | (2) |
|
Effect of Calcium Carbonate on PVC Weatherability |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
Effect of Process Conditions on Color Weatherability |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
Compound Processing Conditions |
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
|
|
501 | (3) |
|
Product Design Considerations |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
Internal Stresses in the Profile |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
Industry Trends and Recommendations |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
|
|
506 | (2) |
|
|
|
508 | (3) |
|
|
|
511 | (90) |
|
|
|
|
|
511 | (2) |
|
|
|
513 | (55) |
|
|
|
513 | (1) |
|
|
|
513 | (4) |
|
|
|
517 | (2) |
|
Cylindrical versus Conical Twin-Screw Extruders |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
Melt Flow Path to the Die |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
|
|
522 | (6) |
|
|
|
528 | (2) |
|
Downstream Calibration and Take-Off |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
|
|
531 | (3) |
|
|
|
534 | (1) |
|
Screw Injection Molding Machine |
|
|
535 | (4) |
|
|
|
539 | (4) |
|
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
|
|
543 | (6) |
|
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
|
|
551 | (9) |
|
Heavy-Gauge Thermoforming |
|
|
560 | (5) |
|
Other Heavy-Gauge PVC-Type Sheet Forming |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
Compression Molding with Radio-Frequency Heating |
|
|
566 | (2) |
|
|
|
568 | (11) |
|
|
|
568 | (3) |
|
|
|
571 | (4) |
|
Effect of Fillers and Reinforcements on Viscosity |
|
|
575 | (2) |
|
Effect of Dissolved Gases on Viscosity |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
Filled and Reinforced Foams -- A Comment |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Processing PVC-Containing Polymers |
|
|
579 | (2) |
|
Processing Chlorinated PVC |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
Plasticized PVC Processes |
|
|
581 | (12) |
|
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
|
|
583 | (4) |
|
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
Drysol Rotational Molding |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
Lower-Durometer or Semi-Rigid Processing |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
|
591 | (2) |
|
|
|
593 | (8) |
|
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
|
|
595 | (6) |
|
Product Engineering Design |
|
|
601 | (18) |
|
|
|
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
|
|
601 | (2) |
|
Designing a Good Injection Molding Product |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
Processing Effect on PVC Products |
|
|
604 | (4) |
|
Material Properties of PVC Molded Products |
|
|
608 | (6) |
|
End-Use Effects on PVC Molded Products |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
|
|
615 | (4) |
|
PVC Applications, their Standards and Regulations, and Starting Formulations |
|
|
619 | (20) |
|
|
|
|
|
619 | (3) |
|
Applications Information Sources |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
|
|
622 | (2) |
|
|
|
623 | (1) |
|
Water Service Distribution |
|
|
623 | (1) |
|
|
|
623 | (1) |
|
Starting Point Formulations |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
|
|
624 | (5) |
|
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
Consumer Goods and Home Furnishings |
|
|
629 | (3) |
|
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
|
|
632 | (3) |
|
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
Transportation/Automotive |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
|
|
636 | (3) |
|
PVC Environmental, Health, Safety |
|
|
639 | (40) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
Industry Size and Safety Record |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
Overview of Monomer and Polymer Regulatory Issues (EDC/VCM/PVC) |
|
|
640 | (4) |
|
U.S. Environmental Releases |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
Ambient Air Concentrations in Communities Near Manufacturing Facilities |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
|
642 | (2) |
|
|
|
644 | (12) |
|
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
PVC Resins -- Safe Handling of PVC Resins |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
|
|
647 | (2) |
|
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
Processing and Materials Handling -- Resin and Compounding |
|
|
649 | (3) |
|
Workplace Exposure and Emissions |
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
654 | (2) |
|
|
|
656 | (14) |
|
Building and Construction |
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
656 | (2) |
|
Siding, Windows, and Fencing/Decking/Railing |
|
|
658 | (4) |
|
|
|
662 | (2) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Combustion Safety and Toxicity |
|
|
667 | (3) |
|
|
|
670 | (9) |
|
|
|
670 | (3) |
|
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
|
|
673 | (6) |
|
PVC Industry Structure and Dynamics |
|
|
679 | (22) |
|
|
|
|
|
679 | (7) |
|
|
|
679 | (1) |
|
|
|
679 | (2) |
|
Producer Back Integration |
|
|
681 | (2) |
|
Producer Forward Integration |
|
|
683 | (2) |
|
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
|
686 | (9) |
|
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (2) |
|
Market Status of Specialty Resins |
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
Merchant Resin vs. Compound Sales |
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
691 | (1) |
|
|
|
692 | (1) |
|
Growth Forecast until 2010 |
|
|
692 | (3) |
|
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
|
|
695 | (6) |
|
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
PVC Resin Cost Components |
|
|
698 | (2) |
|
New Plant Capital Investment |
|
|
700 | (1) |
| Index |
|
701 | |
Other versions by this Author